What makes an inquiry scientific?
Use an all-explaining theory, an anomaly inside a successful paradigm, and a community closed to criticism to compare testing, history, and social standards of science.
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1620
The Novum Organum presents discovery as an error-reducing procedure rather than a lucky flash of insight.
Bacon — Organized exclusion instead of hasty generalization
1934
The Logic of Scientific Discovery locates a boundary of science in claims that risk being wrong.
Popper — Risky tests rather than piles of confirmations
1962
Published in Chicago, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions depicts scientific time as alternating normal work and revolutionary change.
Kuhn — Normal-science puzzles and paradigm change
Chicago · 출판
1990
Science as Social Knowledge locates objectivity in critical social structures rather than individual detachment.
Longino — Objectivity through communities where criticism can work